(~ 3–6 cm) were collected, washed with virus-free seawater filtered onto 0.02-μm membranes (Anotop syringe filters Whatman, Springfield Mill, UK), immersed in polyethylene Whirl-pack bags (Nasco, Fort Atkinson, WI, USA) filled with 2 L virus-free seawater, and incubated in situ. In situ experiments were conducted in four coral reef areas: Siladen, Celebes Sea (Indonesia, Pacific Ocean) Akumal, Caribbean Sea (Mexico, Atlantic Ocean) Phuket, Andaman Sea (Thailand, Indian Ocean), and Ras Mohammed, Red Sea (Egypt, Indian Ocean). These studies were performed from 2003 to 2007 in different areas of the world, including the Celebes Sea (Pacific Ocean), the Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean), and the Andaman Sea and the Red Sea (Indian Ocean).
To evaluate the potential impact of sun-screen ingredients on hard corals and their symbiotic algae, we conducted several independent in situ studies with the addition of different concentrations of sunscreens to different species of Acropora (one of the most common hard-coral genus), Stylophora pistillata, and Millepora complanata. Recently, it has also been demonstrated that sunscreens have an impact on marine bacterioplankton ( Danovaro and Corinaldesi 2003), but there is no scientific evidence for their impact on coral reefs. In addition it has been demonstrated that several sunscreen agents may undergo photodegradation, resulting in the transformation of these agents into toxic by-products ( Giokas et al. Paraben preservatives and some UV absorbers contained in sunscreens have estrogenic activity ( Daughton and Ternes 1999 Schlumpf et al. 2007) and cause effects similar to those reported for other xenobiotic compounds ( Balmer et al. Because sunscreens are lipophilic, their UV filters can bioaccumulate in aquatic animals ( Giokas et al. These compounds are expected to be potentially harmful for the environment hence, the use of sunscreen products is now banned in a few popular tourist destinations, for example, in marine ecoparks in Mexico, and in some semi-enclosed transitional systems ( Xcaret 2007 Xel-ha 2007). Chemical compounds contained in sunscreens and other personal care products have been demonstrated to reach detectable levels in both fresh and sea-water systems ( Daughton and Ternes 1999 Giokas et al.
The release of these products is also linked with the rapid expansion of tourism in marine coastal areas ( Wilkinson 2004). Production and consumption of personal care and cosmetic sun products are increasing worldwide, reaching unexpected levels, with potentially important consequences on environmental contamination. This phenomenon has been associated with positive temperature anomalies, excess ultraviolet (UV) radiation or altered available photo-synthetic radiation, and presence of bacterial pathogens and pollutants ( Brown et al. Over the last 20 years, massive coral bleaching (i.e., loss of symbiotic zooxanthellae hosted within scleractinian corals) has increased dramatically, both in frequency and spatial extent ( Hoegh-Guldberg 1999 Hughes et al. Approximately 60% of coral reefs are currently threatened by several natural and anthropogenic impacts ( Hughes et al. Coral reefs are among the most biologically productive and diverse ecosystems in the world, representing hot spots of marine biodiversity, and directly sustaining half a billion people ( Moberg and Folke 1999 Wilkinson 2004).
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